Research Ethics
These principles are adapted from the Social Research Association’s guidance on Research Ethics.
1. Informed Consent
Informed consent means that individuals participate in research only when they:
Understand the purpose of the research
Understand what participation involves
Freely and voluntarily agree to take part
Participation must always be voluntary and free from pressure or coercion. Consent is treated as an ongoing process, not a one-off decision. Participants must be aware that they can withdraw at any time, without giving a reason and without penalty.
1.1 Information Provided to Participants
Participants will be given clear, accessible information covering:
Who is conducting the research
Who is funding it
The purpose of the study
How the data will be used and by whom
What participation involves (e.g., interview length, recording, filming, questionnaires)
Who will have access to personal data
Any reasonably foreseeable risks
Any other relevant information necessary to support informed decision-making
Information will be presented in a format appropriate to participants’ needs, taking into account factors like literacy levels and English language proficiency.
1.2 Addressing Power Imbalances
Where researchers may be perceived as holding authority (e.g., representing government or institutions), steps will be taken to:
Clearly emphasise the voluntary nature of participation
Reinforce participants’ right to decline or withdraw
Minimise perceived pressure to participate
1.3 Ongoing Consent in Practice
Researchers will:
Remain attentive to verbal and non-verbal cues of discomfort
Offer participants the option to skip questions or take breaks
Check privately with individuals in group settings if discomfort is observed
Confirm at the end of interviews that participants are comfortable with the material discussed being used
2. Confidentiality and Anonymity
2.1 Protection of Personal Data
Researchers will protect participants’ identities by removing direct identifiers such as:
Name
Date of birth
Address
Indirect identifiers (e.g., job title, employer, location, unique characteristics) will also be considered carefully to prevent deductive disclosure.
2.2 Organisational and Community Confidentiality
Confidentiality considerations extend to organisations and communities that may be identifiable through contextual information such as size, sector, or location.
2.3 Data Collection Safeguards
To prevent confidentiality breaches:
Clear confidentiality ground rules will be set in focus groups
Intrusive questions will be avoided unless essential
Participants’ right not to answer questions will be respected
2.4 Reporting and Dissemination
When reporting findings, confidentiality may be protected through:
Omitting identifiable details
Changing key characteristics
Using anonymised or pseudonymised identifiers
3. Avoiding Harm
Researchers have an ethical responsibility to anticipate, minimise and respond to potential harm throughout the research lifecycle.
While not all risks can be predicted, careful planning and ongoing vigilance will reduce the likelihood and impact of harm.
3.1 Mitigating against physical harm
The safety of research locations will be assessed to minimise physical risk to participants and researchers.
3.2 Mitigating against emotional distress
Researchers will:
Avoid unnecessarily focusing on distressing topics
Monitor verbal and non-verbal signs of discomfort
Respond sensitively and appropriately
Pause or redirect interviews if required
Participants will be informed of potential emotional risks as part of informed consent.
3.3 Harm to Wider Groups
Research findings may unintentionally portray particular groups negatively or reinforce stereotypes. Researchers will:
Avoid suppressing findings
Report results responsibly and without judgemental language
Consider broader social implications when disseminating findings
4. Research Integrity & Questionable Practices
All research must be conducted and reported with honesty, transparency and professional competence.
4.1 Fabrication
Fabrication refers to the invention of data or research activities that did not occur. This includes:
Reporting research that was not conducted
Inventing participants or responses
Adding fictitious data to strengthen findings
Fabrication is strictly prohibited.
4.2 Falsification
Falsification involves altering or omitting data to misrepresent results, including:
Modifying data to change outcomes
Misrepresenting statistical analysis
Misstating methods used
Researchers must ensure findings are reported accurately and without distortion.
4.3 Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the use of another person’s ideas, words or findings without proper acknowledgement. This includes:
Direct copying without citation
Paraphrasing without credit
All sources must be appropriately acknowledged.
4.4 Acknowledging Methodological Limitations
Researchers must clearly state the strengths and limitations of their methods.
Overclaiming validity, accuracy or generalisability — whether in qualitative or quantitative research — undermines integrity. Examples include:
Making population-level claims from non-representative samples
Selectively using qualitative quotes without contextual information
Failing to explain sampling limitations
Researchers are expected to:
Understand the strengths and weaknesses of the methods they use
Ensure third-party representations of their work do not mislead